Lexical Stylistic Devices

Glossary

Tyulyubayeva Gaukhar, 45 ER

Allusions

·        Is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life, made in the course of speaking and writing.

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981 p.187;

·        Is a brief reference to some literary or historical event commonly known. The speaker is not explicit what he means.

Babenko E.V. “A Manual of English stylistics” – Kostanay 2008.p54

·        Reference to a famous historical, literary, mytho­logical or biblical character or event, commonly known.

Znamenskaya T.A., Stylistics of the English Language, Fundamentals of the course, M.: 2004, p. 23;

·        This is an indirect reference to (a hint at) some historical or literary fact (or personage) expressed in the text. Allusion presupposes the knowledge of such a fact on the part of the reader or listener, so no particular explanation is given (although this is sometimes really needed).

V.V. Gurevich, “English stylistics”, p. 35

·        from Latin allusio – “a hint”) – a reference to some commonly known literary, historical, mythological, biblical, etc. event.

Gafiatulina Y.O. “English stylistics”, p.7

Antonomasia

·        a lexical SD in which a proper name is used instead of a common noun, i.e. a lexical SD in which the <nominal meaning> of a proper name is suppressed by its <logical meaning> or the logical meaning acquires the new – nominal – component

         e.g. He took little satisfaction in telling each Mary \[=any female\], shortly after she arrived, something ... (Th. Dreiser)

V.A. Kukhrenko, “A Book of practice in stylistics”, p. 50

·        special use of own names: transition of own names in nominal (Don Juan), or transformation of the word opening a character essence, into own name of the character, as in R. Sheridan's comedies, or replacement of own name with the name of the event connected with this person or a subject.

I.V. Arnold, “Stylistics”, p. 64

·        This device consists in the use of a proper name instead of a common name or vice versa. Thus, we may use a description instead of a person's name, creating a kind of nickname: Mister Know-all (a character of S. Maugham); Miss Toady, Miss Sharp (W.Thackeray); Mr. Murdstone (Ch.Dickens).

V.V. Gurevich, “English stylistics”, p. 33

·        The interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a word is called antonomasia. As in other stylistic devices based on meanings, the two kinds of meanings must be realized in the word simultaneously.

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981; p. 150

·        kind of a metaphorical transfer of meaning, or renaming. Distinguish two types of an antonomasia: using of proper names  in value of a common noun (Othello, Don Juan, Romeo, Hamlet, the princess Marya Alekseevna, Molchalin, Hlestakov, Manilov, Nozdrev, Sobakevich etc.) and using of common nouns or their parts as a proper name;

A.N. Morohovskiy, “English Stylistics”, p. 168

Euphemism

·        Is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.

According to their spheres of application may be divided into religious, moral, medical and parliamentary.

·        Conventional euphemisms employed in conformity to social usages and illustrated by the parliamentary codes of expression.

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981 ;

·        A variety of periphrases, “a whitewashing device” – a word/phrase used to replace an unpleasant or tabooed word/expression by a conventionally more acceptable, mild, or less straightforward one. Euphemisms can be joking;

Gafiatulina Y.O. “English stylistics” – Pavlodar 2004

·        This term denotes the use of a different, more gentle or favorable name for an object or phenomenon so as to avoid undesirable or unpleasant associations. Thus, the verb to die may be replaced by euphemisms like to expire, to be no more, to join the majority, to be gone, to depart; a madhouse may be called a lunatic asylum or a mental hospital; euphemisms for toilet, lavatory is ladies'(men's) room; rest-room; bathroom.

V.V. Gurevich, “English stylistics”, p. 33

·  This is a kind of paraphrase, which replaces gross, obscene and nasty expressions in politer way;

A.N. Morohovskiy, “English Stylistics”, p. 16

·        a phrase synonymic with the words which were substituted by <periphrasis> because the direct nomination of the not too elegant feature of appearance was substituted by a roundabout description offers more polite (euphemistic) qualification instead of a coarser one

         e.g. Mr. Du Pont was dressed in the conventional disguise \[the suit \] with which Brooks Brothers cover the shame of American millionaires \[the paunch (belly)\]. (The Morning Star)

         e.g. I am thinking an unmentionable thing about your mother. (I. Shaw)

V.A. Kukharenko, “A Book of practice in stylistics”, p. 95-96

Epithet

·        a <stylistic device> based on the interplay of emotive and <logical meaning> in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to characterize and object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently imposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties

e.g.” wild wind”, “loud ocean”, “remorseless dash of billows”, “formidable waves”, “heart-burning smile”; “destructive charms”, “glorious sight”, “encouraging smile”

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981 p.143;

·        is probably as well known to you as the metaphor, because it is widely mentioned by the critics, scholars, teachers, and students discussing a literary work. Epithet expresses characteristics of an object, both existing and imaginary. Its basic feature is its emotiveness and subjectivity: the characteristic attached to the object to qualify it is always chosen by the speaker himself.

V.A. Kukhrenko, “A Book of practice in stylistics”, p. 29

·        This is a word or phrase containing an expressive characteristic of the object, based on some metaphor and thus creating an image:

О dreamy, gloomy, friendly trees! (Trench)

V.V. Gurevich, “English stylistics”, p. 31

·        a word or phrase used to describe someone or some­thing with a purpose to praise or blame.

E. g. It was a lovely, summery evening

Znamenskaya T.A., Stylistics of the English Language, Fundamentals of the course, M.: 2004, p. 15

·        expressional estimated characteristic of any phenomenon, person or subject, sometimes, but optional, figurative;

2) lexical-syntactical <tracks>, the emotive or expressional or other connotations thanks to which it is expressed the author's relations to a subject differs in unreliable figurative sense of the word expressing it and an obligatory existence in the subject;

I.V. Arnold, “Stylistics”, p. 67

Hyperbole

·        A deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unlike periphrasis) to the object or phenomenon. In its extreme form this exagge­ration is carried to an illogical degree, sometimes ad absurdum.

For example: “He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face.” (O.Henry)

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981 p.176;

·        A deliberate exaggeration/overstatement of an object feature to such a degree that will show its utter absurdity.

Semantically hyperboles split into:

1.     Genuine (poetic/fresh/original/newly-created), i.e. fresh and absolutely unexpected (see examples above);

2.     Trite (dead/hackneyed/stale/banal/stereotyped), the original figurative meaning of which has been forgotten due to the overuse

Gafiatulina Y.O. “English stylistics” – Pavlodar 2004

·        Is the use of a word, a word-group or a sentence which exaggerates the real degree of a quantity of the spoken about.

E.g. “One after another those people lay down on the grass to laugh – and two of them died”

Babenko E.V. “A Manual of English stylistics” – Kostanay 2008.p52

·        A stylistic device in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration, - like epithet, relies on the foregrounding of the emotive meaning. The feelings and emotions of the speaker are so baffled that he resorts in his speech to intensifying the quantitative or the qualitative aspect of the mentioned object.

“To his Coy Mistress ”  Andrew Marvell writes about love: “My vegetable love should grow faster than empires”

Kukharenko V.A. “A book of Practice in Stylistics”- Moscow1986 p. 58

·        stylistic devices aimed at intensification of meaning. Hyperbole (гипербола, преувеличение) denotes a deliberate extreme exaggeration of the quality of the object: He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face. (O. Henry); All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. (Shakespeare); a car as big as a house; the man-mountain (человек-гора, Гул­ливер); a thousand pardons; I've told you a million times; He was scared to death; I'd give anything to see it.

V.V. Gurevich, “English stylistics”, p. 31

·        use of exaggerated terms for emphasis.

E. g. A 1000 apologies; to wait an eternity; he is stronger than a lion.

Znamenskaya T.A., Stylistics of the English Language, Fundamentals of the course, M.: 2004, p. 15

·        the notorious exaggeration increasing expressivity of the statement and telling him and emphatic;

I.V. Arnold, “Stylistics”, p. 64

Irony

·        like the stylistic device of zeugma, is based on the simultaneous realization of two opposite meanings: the permanent, "direct" meaning (the dictionary meaning) of words and their contextual (covert, implied) meaning. Usually the direct meaning in such cases expresses a positive evaluation of the situation, while the context contains the opposite, negative evaluation:

How delightful — to find yourself in a foreign country without a penny in your pocket!

V.V. Gurevich, “English stylistics”, p. 36

·        is a <stylistic device> in which the contextual <evaluative meaning> of a word is directly opposite to its <dictionary meaning>

         - is the <foregrounding> not of the logical but of the <evaluative meaning>;

         - is the contradiction between the said and implied;

         - is subdivided into <verbal irony> and <sustained irony>;

         The context is arranged so that the qualifying word in irony reverses the direction of the evaluation, and the word positively charged is understood as a negative qualification and (much-much rarer) vice versa. The context varies from the minimal – a word combination to the context of a whole book.

Kukharenko V.A. “A book of Practice in Stylistics”- Moscow1986 p. 37,46

·        difference from a metaphor and a metonymy, is considered not only as a certain means or reception, but also as one of components of aesthetic category of the comic. the use of the word which is usually expressing a positive assessment for expression of an assessment negative. Conflicting to a situation, the real fact, a context, the word as if gains the value opposite to its usual value;

A.N. Morohovskiy, “English Stylistics”, p. 172

·        is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous reali­zation of two logical meanings—dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other. For example:

"It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket."

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981 p.133;

·        meaning "concealed mоскеrу", in Greek eironeia) is a device based on the opposition of meaning to the sense (dictionary and contextual). Here we observe the greatest semantic shift between the notion named and the notion meant.

Znamenskaya T.A., Stylistics of the English Language, Fundamentals of the course, M.: 2004, p. 23;

·        (from Greek είρωνεία – “mockery concealed”) – a direct contrast of two notions: the notion named and the notion meant. In other words, the writer says one thing, but really means the opposite to produce a humorous effect, or to express a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity, or regret.

E.g.: The food was so delicious that I took it home for my dog.

She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator. (J. Steinbeck)

The context in which irony exists varies from the minimum of a word combination to the context of the whole book.

Gafiatulina Y.O. “English stylistics”, p.16;

Litotes

·        is a stylistic device consisting of a peculiar use of nega­tive constructions. The negation plus noun or adjective serves to establish a positive feature in a person or thing. This positive feature, however, is somewhat diminished in quality as compared with a synonymous expres­sion making a straightforward assertion of the positive feature. Let us compare the following two pairs of sentences:

1. It's not a bad thing.—It's a good thing.

2. He is no coward.—He is a brave man.

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981 p.226;

·        is a device based on a peculiar use of negative constructions in the positive meaning, so that, on the face of it, the quality seems to be underestimated (diminished), but in fact it is shown as something very positive or intensified: Not bad (= very good); He is no coward (= very brave);

V.V. Gurevich, “English stylistics”, p. 31;

·        is a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a positive evaluation. Thus “not unkindly” actually means “kindly”, though the positive effect is weakened and some lack of the speaker’s confidence in his statement is implied. The first component of a litotes is always the negative particle “not”, while the second, always negative in semantics, varies in form from a negatively affixed word (as above) to a negative phrase.

Kukharenko V.A. “A book of Practice in Stylistics”- Moscow1986 p. 93;

·        the figure of speech consisting in the use of a particle with an antonym, already containing negative prefix

 e.g. it isn't unlikely = it is very likely; he wasn't unaware of = he was quite aware of

 - transfers mainly well-mannered restraint or irony in colloquial style;

 - in scientific style reports to the statement big severity and care:

 e.g. it isn't difficult to See = it easy to See;

I.V. Arnold, “Stylistics”, p. 162;

·        understatement for effect, esp. that in which an affirmative is expressed by a negation of the contrary;

Znamenskaya T.A., Stylistics of the English Language, Fundamentals of the course, M.: 2004, p. 31;

·        means of rhetorical derogation. The litotes differs from a meiosis not only contents, but also structure. The litotes has specific semantical-syntactical structure: the use of a particle of not under the word containing negative value or a negative prefix type not bad, not unkind). If to proceed from features of structure, the litotes as well as a rhetorical question can be considered as a kind of a transposition — the offer in a form is affirmative according to the contents.

Metaphor

·        The term 'metaphor', as the etymology of the word reveals, means transference of some quality from one object to another. From the times of ancient Greek and Roman rhetoric, the term has been known to denote the transference of meaning from one word to another. It is still widely used to designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative mean­ing. Quintilian remarks: "It is due to the metaphor that each thing seems to have its name in language." Language as a whole has been figu­ratively defined as a dictionary of faded metaphors.

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981 p.127;

·        Metaphor denotes a transference of meaning based on resemblance (перенос, основанный на сходстве), in other words, on a covert (скрытое) comparison:

He is not a man, he is just a machine; What an ass you are!; the childhood of mankind; the dogs of war, a film star.

V.V. Gurevich, “English stylistics”, p. 27

·        transference of names based on the associated likeness between two objects, as in the “pancake”, or “ball”, or “volcano” for the “sun”; “silver dust”, “sequins” for “stars”; “vault”, “blanket”, “veil” for the “sky”. Metaphor can be expressed by all notional parts of speech, and functions in the sentence as any of its members.

·        When the speaker (writer) in his desire to present an elaborated image does not limit its creation to a single metaphor but offers a group of them, each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon, this cluster creates a sustained (prolonged) metaphor;

Kukharenko V.A. “A book of Practice in Stylistics”- Moscow1986 p. 37, 38, 41;

·        represents the secondary nomination based on similarity, a community (real or imaginary) object of the nomination with that object which name is transferred to object of the nomination. "The metaphor — is the principle of extraordinary word usage, the name of "subject", the "sense" having already "name", the new word which can forever be approved behind it"

A.N. Morohovskiy, “English Stylistics”, p. 164;

·        the hidden comparison based on association on similarity, which is carried out by application of the name of one subject to another and revealing thus any important line of the second;

I.V. Arnold, “Stylistics”, p. 62

Metonymy

·        is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on iden­tification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent.

·        Thus, the word crown may stand for 'king or queen', cup or glass for 'the drink it contains', woolsack for 'the Chancellor of the Excheq­uer who sits on it, OJT the position and dignity of the Lord Chancellor*, e. g., "Here the noble lord inclined his knee to the Woolsack." (from Han­sard).

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981 p.131;

·        denotes a transference of meaning which is based on contiguity of notions not on resemblance;

V.V. Gurevich, “English stylistics”, p. 29;

·        lexical SD, — like metaphor — on losing its originality also becomes instrumental in enriching the vocabulary of the language, though metonymy is created by a different semantic process and is based on contiguity (nearness) of objects or phenomena. Transference of names in metonymy does not involve a necessity for two different words to have a common component in their semantic structures, as is the case of metaphor, but proceeds from the fact that two objects (phenomena) have common grounds of existence in reality. Such words as “cup” and “tea” have no linguistic semantic nearness, but the first one may serve the container of the second, hence — the conversational cliche “Will you have another cup?”, which is a case of metonymy, once original, but due to long use, no more accepted as a fresh SD.

Kukharenko V.A. “A book of Practice in Stylistics”- Moscow1986 p. 37, 40, 41;

·        as the secondary language nomination is based on real communication of object of the nomination with that object, the name of which was transferred to object of the name.

A.N. Morohovskiy, “English Stylistics”, p. 160;

·        based on association on contiguity: instead of the name of one subject the name of another, connected with the first a constant internal or external communication

 e.g. Give everyman thy ear and few thy voice. (Shakespeare)

I.V. Arnold, “Stylistics”, p. 63;

·        substitution of one word for another on the basis of real connection.

E.g. Crown for sovereign; Homer for Homer's poems; wealth for rich people.

Znamenskaya T.A., Stylistics of the English Language, Fundamentals of the course, M.: 2004, p. 15;

Oxymoron

·        is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense, for example:

'low skyscraper', 'sweet sorrow', 'nice rascal', 'pleasantly ugly face', 'horribiy  'a deafening silence';

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981 p.149;

·        a combination of two semantically contradictory notions, that help to emphasize contradictory qualities simultaneously existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity

Kukharenko V.A. “A book of Practice in Stylistics”- Moscow1986 p. 37, 60, 61;

·        consisting in connection two contrast on word meaning (usually containing antonymous sema), opening discrepancy of the described.

 e.g. And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true. (A.Tennyson)

I.V. Arnold, “Stylistics”, p. 63;

·        This is a device which combines, in one phrase, two words (usually: noun + adjective) whose meanings are opposite and incompatible (несовместимы):

a living corpse; sweet sorrow; a nice rascal; awfully (terribly) nice; a deafening silence; a low skyscraper.

V.V. Gurevich, “English stylistics”, p. 31;

·        a figure of speech in which opposite or contradictory ideas are combined;

Znamenskaya T.A., Stylistics of the English Language, Fundamentals of the course, M.: 2004, p. 31;

·        (from Greek όζύμωρον – “wittily foolish”) – two successive words (mostly an adjective and a noun, or an adverb and an adjective), the meanings of which clash, being opposite in sense.

E.g.: O brawling love! O loving hate! Heavy lightness! Serious vanity! Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health! (W. Shakespeare)

Gafiatulina Y.O. “English stylistics”, p.19;

Periphrasis

·        is a device which, according to Webster's diction­ary, denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. It is also called circumlocution due to the round-about or indirect way used to name a familiar object or phenomenon;

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981 p.155;

·        using a roundabout form of expression instead of a simpler one

         b) using a more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a word

         They are classified into <figurative periphrasis> (<metaphoric periphrasis> or <metonymic periphrasis>) and <logical periphrasis> (<euphemistic periphrasis>)

Kukharenko V.A. “A book of Practice in Stylistics”- Moscow1986 p. 94, 95;

·        consisting in replacement of the name of a subject with a descriptive turn with the indication of its essential, characteristic signs;

 e.g. The beast that bears me. (horse) (Shakespeare - L)

I.V. Arnold, “Stylistics”, p. 60;  

·        renaming of an object by a phrase that emphasizes some particular feature of the object;

Znamenskaya T.A., Stylistics of the English Language, Fundamentals of the course, M.: 2004, p. 61;

·        the replacement figure consisting in replacement of the name of a subject (or the phenomena) the description of its most essential signs or the instruction on their characteristic features. The periphrasis increases pictorials of the speech as it not only calls a subject, but also describes it;

A.N. Morohovskiy, “English Stylistics”, p. 162;

·        This is a device by which a longer phrase is used instead of a shorter and plainer one; it is a case of circumlocution (a round­about way of description), which is used in literary descriptions for greater expressiveness:

The little boy has been deprived of what can never be replaced (Dickens) (= deprived of his mother);

Ø It is description of an object instead of its name.

E.g.  two hundred pages of blood – curling narrative =(thriller);

Babenko E.V. “A Manual of English stylistics” – Kostanay 2008.p54

Simile

·        an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of some quality

         The one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. The tenor and the vehicle form the two semantic poles of the simile, which are connected by one of the following link words: “like”, “as”, “as though”, “as if”, “as like”, “such as”, “as ... as”, etc.

Kukharenko V.A. “A book of Practice in Stylistics”- Moscow1986 p. 53, 54, 57

·        characterization of one object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things

         - excludes all the properties of the two objects except one which is made common to them;

         - forcibly set one object against another regardless of the fact that they may be completely alien to each other;

         e.g. Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare. (Byron)

Galperin I.R. “Stylistics” Moscow 1981 p.152;

·        This is a comparison creating a vivid image due to the fact that the object with which we compare is well-known as an example of the quality in question. The characteristic itself may be named in the simile, e.g. when the conjunction "as" is used: (as) beautiful as a rose; stupid as an ass; stubborn as a mule; fresh as a rose; fat as a pig; white as snow; proud as a peacock; drunk as a lord;

V.V. Gurevich, “English stylistics”, p. 28;

·        . a figure of speech in which two unlike things are explicitly compared by the use of like, as, resemble, etc.

Znamenskaya T.A., Stylistics of the English Language, Fundamentals of the course, M.: 2004, p. 62;

·        the imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to different classes. A simile states that a is like/as b.

E.g.: He is as beautiful as a weathercock. (O. Wilde)

My heart is like a singing bird. (Ch. Rossetti)

Each simile consists of the following three components: 1) the thing which is compared, called the tenor; 2) the thing with which it is compared, called the vehicle; 3) link-words, such as like, as, as though, as like, such as, as … as, as if, seem, etc.

Gafiatulina Y.O. “English stylistics”, p.31;

·        the stylistic reception consisting in partial likening of two objects of reality (or their properties) belonging to the different classes. The compared subjects aren't identical completely, they only something remind each other. Ascertaining of their partial identity gives new perception of a subject.

Comparison — is the structure consisting of two components: the subject of comparison and object of comparison united formalnykm by indicators of cogitative operation of likening, such as as, as... as, like, as though, as if, such as, etc.: His flesh was like a bliskter you could prick with a needle (G. Greene)

A.N. Morohovskiy, “English Stylistics”, p. 175;

·        Is imaginative comparison. This is an explicit statement of partial identity (affinity, likeness, similarity) of two objects. The purpose of this confrontation of the names of two different objects is to characterize vividly one of the two.

Babenko E.V. “A Manual of English stylistics” – Kostanay 2008.